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In this context, western democracies and their allies must step up, forge stronger partnerships and invest in shared strategic capacity to confront the growing threat, the authors argue.

"We have moved beyond a point where countering disinformation solely through content-level interventions like fact-checking is sufficient," the report says.

"Instead, the priority must shift to addressing the underlying structures and systems that enable the creation and spread of disinformation."

That work should include investing in news media, the authors say.

They point out that while authoritarian states like China, Russia and Iran are spending heavily on state-backed international media to influence audiences abroad, public broadcasters in democracies -- such as Radio Free Europe, Voice of America and Radio Canada International -- have endured significant funding cuts for years.

"The era of passive observation is over. If democracies are to withstand and ultimately overcome the growing axis of autocracy, they must meet this challenge with the seriousness, resources, and co-ordination it demands," the report says.

"The stakes are no less than the integrity of our institutions, the resilience of our alliances, and the survival of the democratic idea itself."