Geoarchaeological survey uncovers how the iconic temple evolved from an island into a monumental center of Ancient Egypt

Researchers have completed the most detailed geoarchaeological study ever conducted at Egypt's Karnak Temple near Luxor -- one of the largest temple complexes of the ancient world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site that attracts millions of visitors each year.

The new study, published in Antiquity on 6 October, provides fresh evidence on the age and evolution of the temple, its links to ancient Egyptian mythology, and how the surrounding river landscape shaped its development over 3,000 years of occupation.

"This new research provides unprecedented detail on the evolution of Karnak Temple, from a small island to one of the defining institutions of Ancient Egypt," said Dr Ben Pennington, lead author of the study and Visiting Fellow in Geoarchaeology at the University of Southampton.

Karnak Temple lies about 500 meters east of the present-day River Nile, within the ancient religious capital of Thebes.

An international team led by Dr Angus Graham of Uppsala University, working with colleagues from the University of Southampton, analyzed 61 sediment cores taken from within and around the site. Tens of thousands of ceramic fragments were also examined to establish a precise timeline for human occupation.

The results show that before around 2520 BCE, the area was unsuitable for settlement, as it was frequently flooded by fast-flowing Nile waters. This suggests the temple's earliest occupation likely began during Egypt's Old Kingdom (c.2591-2152 BCE). Supporting evidence came from ceramics dated between c.2305 and 1980 BCE.

"The age of Karnak Temple has been hotly contested in archaeological circles, but our new evidence places a temporal constraint on its earliest occupation and construction," explained Dr Kristian Strutt, co-author of the paper from the University of Southampton.

The researchers discovered that Karnak's foundation was shaped by two ancient Nile channels that once flowed to its west and east. As these channels deepened, they created a natural island of high ground, providing a stable base for early settlement and temple construction.

Over time, these watercourses diverged further apart, giving the expanding temple complex room to grow.

The study also revealed that the eastern river channel, long considered speculative, was actually more prominent than the well-studied western one.

"The river channels surrounding the site shaped how the temple could develop and where, with new construction taking place on top of old rivers as they silted up," said Dominic Barker, co-author from the University of Southampton.

"We also see how Ancient Egyptians shaped the river itself, through the dumping of sands from the desert into channels, possibly to provide new land for building, for example," he added.

The team's findings suggest a fascinating link between Karnak's landscape and Egyptian creation mythology. Ancient texts describe the creator god emerging as high ground rising from the surrounding waters -- a striking parallel to the natural island on which Karnak stands.

"It's tempting to suggest the Theban elites chose Karnak's location for the dwelling place of a new form of the creator god, 'Ra-Amun', as it fitted the cosmogonical scene of high ground emerging from surrounding water," said Dr Pennington.

He added, "Later texts of the Middle Kingdom (c.1980-1760 BC) develop this idea, with the 'primeval mound' rising from the 'Waters of Chaos'. During this period, the abating of the annual flood would have echoed this scene, with the mound on which Karnak was built appearing to 'rise' and grow from the receding floodwaters."

With a concession to investigate the entire Luxor floodplain, the team plans to continue surveying other major sites to better understand the landscapes and waterscapes of Egypt's ancient religious capital.

The paper, Conceptual origins and geomorphic evolution of the temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak (Luxor, Egypt), is published in Antiquity and available online.

The research was funded by the Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Stiftelse (KAW 2013.0163), Uppsala Universitet (HUMSAM 2014/17), and M och S Wångstedts Stiftelse, and carried out under the Egypt Exploration Society (London) with a permit from the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (Egypt).

Original Publication

Authors: Benjamin Thomas Pennington, Angus Graham, Aurélia Masson-Berghoff, Marie Millet, Jan Peeters, Willem H.J. Toonen, Timotheus G. Winkels, Luke H. Sollars, Virginia L. Emery, Kristian David Strutt and Dominic Simon Barker.

Journal: Antiquity

DOI: 10.15184/aqy.2025.10185

Article Title: Conceptual origins and geomorphic evolution of the temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak (Luxor, Egypt)

Article Publication Date: 6-Oct-2025

COI Statement: The authors declare no competing interests. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the National Park Service or the government of the USA.